Revista Científica ‘‘INGENIAR”: Ingeniería, Tecnología e Investigación. Vol. 8 Núm. (16) 2025. ISSN: 2737-6249

Analysis of macrotexture and skid resistance in flexible pavements using standardised methods.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.46296/ig.v8i16.0302

ANÁLISIS DE LA MACROTEXTURA Y LA RESISTENCIA AL

DESLIZAMIENTO EN PAVIMENTOS FLEXIBLES MEDIANTE MÉTODOS

ESTANDARIZADOS

ANALYSIS OF MACROTEXTURE AND SKID RESISTANCE IN FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENTS USING STANDARDISED METHODS

1

2

Moreno-Ponce Luis Alfonso ; Solórzano-Villegas Lucy Elizabeth ;

3

4

Peralta-Delgado Jaime Adrián ; Guillén-Morales Freddy Humberto

1

Universidad Estatal del Sur de Manabí. Jipijapa, Ecuador.

Correo: luis.moreno@unesum.edu.ec. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0009-0000-9026-1009

2

Universidad Estatal del Sur de Manabí. Jipijapa, Ecuador.

Correo: lucy.solorzano@unesum.edu.ec. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9903-5304

3

Universidad Estatal del Sur de Manabí. Jipijapa, Ecuador.

Correo: jaime.peralta@unesum.edu.ec. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3830-9719

4

Universidad Estatal del Sur de Manabí. Jipijapa, Ecuador.

Correo: freddy.guillen@unesum.edu.ec. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6240-2377

Resumen

El estudio evaluó la relación entre la macrotextura del pavimento y la fricción en condiciones

húmedas en una sección flexible de la carretera El Venado (El Carmen, Manabí, Ecuador). El

objetivo fue establecer una correlación cuantitativa entre la Profundidad Media de Textura (MTD)

y el Número de Péndulo Británico (BPN). Se aplicaron métodos estandarizados: ASTM E965

(

parche de arena) para MTD y ASTM E303 (British Pendulum Tester) para BPN. Se definieron

cinco secciones de 50 m con cinco puntos por sección (n = 25), con control ambiental y

calibración del instrumento. El análisis estadístico (Pearson y MCO) indicó una asociación

positiva y significativa (r = 0,91; R² = 0,83) y un modelo lineal BPN = 28,54 + 51,04·MTD. Un

aumento de 0,1 mm en MTD elevó BPN en aproximadamente 5,1 unidades. Los residuos

exhibieron normalidad y homocedasticidad, confirmando la validez del modelo. Se concluyó que

la macrotextura actuó como un predictor sólido de la fricción en pavimentos flexibles y

proporciona una herramienta operativa para priorizar el mantenimiento y las auditorías de

seguridad vial, y se recomienda una recalibración para diferentes gradaciones de agregados,

climas y niveles de tráfico.

Palabras clave: Macrotextura; Resistencia al deslizamiento; Pavimentos flexibles; ASTM E965;

ASTM E303.

Abstract

The study assessed the relationship between pavement macrotexture and wet-condition friction

on a flexible section of El Venado Road (El Carmen, Manabí, Ecuador). The objective was to

establish a quantitative correlation between Mean Texture Depth (MTD) and the British Pendulum

Number (BPN). Standardised methods were applied: ASTM E965 (sand patch) for MTD and

ASTM E303 (British Pendulum Tester) for BPN. Five 50 m sections were defined with five points

per section (n = 25), with environmental control and instrument calibration. Statistical analysis

(

Pearson and OLS) indicated a positive, significant association (r = 0.91; R² = 0.83) and a linear

model BPN = 28.54 + 51.04·MTD. A 0.1 mm increase in MTD raised BPN by approximately 5.1

units. Residuals exhibited normality and homoscedasticity, confirming model validity. It was

concluded that macrotexture acted as a robust predictor of friction on flexible pavements and

provides an operational tool to prioritise maintenance and road safety audits, with recalibration

advised for different aggregate gradations, climates, and traffic levels.

Información del manuscrito:

Fecha de recepción: 08 de julio de 2025.

Fecha de aceptación: 18 de septiembre de 2025.

Fecha de publicación: 27 de octubre de 2025.

418

Moreno-Ponce et al. (2025)

Keywords: Macrotexture; Skid resistance; Flexible pavements; ASTM E965; ASTM E303.

1. Introduction

Pardillo Mayora & Jurado Piña,

009).

2

Tyre–pavement

friction

is

a

Consequently, maintaining adequate

tyre–pavement friction levels has

become a priority within road

determining factor in road safety, as

it defines the ability of vehicles to

maintain control, brake effectively,

and avoid crashes, especially under

adverse conditions such as wet

surfaces or sharp curves (Liu et al.,

infrastructure

management

programmes. This objective has

driven

the

implementation

of

monitoring

systems

of

and

the

2

022; Xu et al., 2022). This

development

advanced

interaction, which represents the only

physical link between the vehicle and

the road, directly influences stability,

technologies, such as smart tyres

and predictive models, which enable

the anticipation of risk situations and

the optimisation of road design and

maintenance (Chen et al., 2023; Liu

et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2024).

Ensuring optimal friction is therefore

recognised as an essential strategy

to reduce crash rates and preserve

road users’ lives.

manoeuvrability,

and

braking

distance (Khaleghian et al., 2017).

Various investigations have shown

that a reduction in the coefficient of

friction, caused by pavement wear,

the presence of water, or deficient

surface

texture,

significantly

increases both the likelihood and

severity of crashes. It has been

evidenced, for example, that crashes

on wet pavements can double the

frequency of those occurring in dry

conditions, and that improving skid

resistance can reduce the incidence

of crashes under wet conditions by

up to 68% (Khaleghian et al., 2017;

In this regard, pavement surface

texture assumes a fundamental role,

being of two

complementary components:

microtexture, related to microscopic

composed

surface

irregularities,

associated

and

with

macrotexture,

undulations perceptible to the naked

eye. Both influence tyre–pavement

adhesion, water drainage, and crash

Revista Científica ‘‘INGENIAR”: Ingeniería, Tecnología e Investigación. Vol. 8 Núm. (16) 2025. ISSN: 2737-6249

Analysis of macrotexture and skid resistance in flexible pavements using standardised methods.

prevention,

particularly

during

crash rates (Espinoza-Molina et al.,

2021; Martinez et al., 2019).

intense rainfall events (Costa et al.,

2

022; Jia et al., 2024; Luo et al.,

014).

However, despite the available

technical evidence, Ecuador and

much of Latin America face a lack of

2

Macrotexture

promotes

the

evacuation of water on the pavement

surface, preventing the formation of

films that generate hydroplaning and

loss of vehicular control. Recent

studies confirm that adequate

macrotexture channels water away

from the contact patch, significantly

reducing crash risk under wet

conditions (Costa et al., 2022; Mataei

et al., 2023). Microtexture, for its part,

provides the initial grip between the

tyre and the surface, while

macrotexture maintains adhesion in

standardised

regulations

and

methodologies for evaluating texture

and friction on pavements. This lack

of

harmonisation

generates

inconsistencies in the application of

preventive measures, hinders the

comparison of results, and limits the

effectiveness of road safety policies

(Gaibor & Carvajal, 2024; Izurieta et

al., 2024; Martinez et al., 2019). In

the Ecuadorian case, the transfer of

competences to local governments

has resulted in decentralised

management but without unified

the

contaminants. Both determine the

coefficient of friction, whose

relationship has been precisely

characterised using three-

presence

of

water

or

national

guidelines,

producing

disparities in the protection of road

users (Izurieta et al., 2024).

At the regional level, legislative

dimensional laser technologie (Luo

et al., 2014; Su et al., 2023).

differences

and

the

uneven

application of standards have

created institutional gaps that hinder

Effective management of surface

texture contributes to a proven

reduction in skid-related crashes,

especially on wet pavements. The

progressive loss of texture increases

crash risk, whereas its restoration

leads to measurable decreases in

road

safety

education

and

compliance with safety standards. In

addition, the lack of integrated

systems for collecting data on

crashes and infrastructure conditions

limits

scientific

research

and

evidence-based

decision-making

420

Moreno-Ponce et al. (2025)

(

Espinoza-Molina et al., 2021;

behaviour

depending

in

on

different

climatic

ways

and

Martinez et al., 2019).

operational conditions (Gao et al.,

025; Kováč et al., 2023; Vicencio et

International experience shows that

regulatory standardisation and the

creation of integrated information

2

al., 2022).

systems

are

essential

road

to

Recent research has deepened the

correlation between surface texture

parameters and friction values on

flexible pavements. Field and

strengthening

safety.

Legislative harmonisation and the

consolidation of unified databases

constitute strategic actions to

improve public policies and ensure

more efficient safety management in

Ecuador and the region (Gaibor &

Carvajal, 2024; Izurieta et al., 2024).

laboratory

studies

demonstrate

significant correlations, especially

under wet conditions (Gao et al.,

2025; Kogbara et al., 2018).

Parameters such as peak density,

crest material volume, and effective

texture depth achieve coefficients of

determination (R²) greater than 0.75.

Regression models and multiscale

analyses allow the prediction of anti-

skid behaviour, improving the design

and maintenance of safe and

sustainable roads (Ding et al., 2021;

Gao et al., 2025; Kogbara et al.,

From

a

technical perspective,

organisations such as the World

Road Association (PIARC), the

Transport Research Laboratory

(

TRRL), and the American Society

for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

have established standardised

methodologies and parameters to

evaluate friction and surface texture.

Among them, the International

Friction Index (IFI) stands out, as it

correlates measurements obtained

with different devices and methods,

facilitating international comparison

and road safety management

2018).

The study aimed to analyse the

relationship between surface

macrotexture and the skid resistance

coefficient on flexible pavements

using internationally standardised

methods. Standards ASTM E965

and ASTM E303 were applied to

determine mean texture depth and

friction values through the sand

(Vicencio et al., 2022). These

standards emphasise the joint

analysis of micro- and macrotexture,

since each influences anti-skid

421

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Analysis of macrotexture and skid resistance in flexible pavements using standardised methods.

patch and British Pendulum tests.

The research was carried out on a

road section in the canton of El

2. Materials and Methods

2.1

Research Design

Carmen, Province

Manabí

The research was conducted under a

quantitative, experimental, and

(Ecuador), in order to establish

correlations between both variables

and provide a replicable technical

methodology that strengthens the

evaluation, maintenance, and safety

of flexible pavements in Latin

American contexts.

correlational approach, aimed at

analysing the relationship between

surface macrotexture and the skid

resistance coefficient on flexible

pavements. The study was based on

internationally standardised methods

that ensure the reproducibility of

results and their comparability with

technical references from recognised

organisations such as the World

Road Association (PIARC), the

Transport Research Laboratory

The article is structured into four

main sections. The Materials and

Methods section describe the study

area, the experimental procedures,

and the technical standards used to

measure macrotexture and skid

resistance. The Results section

presents the values obtained in the

tests, the statistical analysis, and the

correlation between the variables

studied. In the Discussion section,

the findings are interpreted in the

light of previous research and

international standards. Finally, the

Conclusions section synthesises the

study’s technical contributions and

proposes recommendations for the

management and evaluation of

pavements in Latin American

contexts.

(TRRL), and the American Society

for Testing and Materials (ASTM).

The experimental design was

structured in two complementary

phases: the first consisted of field

data collection, through direct tests

on the pavement surface to

determine mean texture depth and

the friction coefficient; the second

corresponded to statistical analysis

and modelling of the correlation

between both variables. The purpose

was to establish a model that

describes anti-skid behaviour as a

function of texture, based on

422

Moreno-Ponce et al. (2025)

standards ASTM E965-15 and ASTM

E303-22.

°C and an average precipitation

close to 2,000 mm. These conditions

create an environment prone to

progressive pavement degradation,

especially due to the combined

action of moisture, solar radiation,

and traffic loads (Figure 1).

The research was carried out in

accordance with principles of validity,

reliability,

and

measurement

prioritising

traceability,

homogeneous conditions on the

analysed surface and safety criteria

during testing. This methodological

approach enabled the obtaining of

representative results that contribute

The

analysed

section

is

approximately 250 linear metres in

length and serves local connectivity

and rural access functions, with

mixed traffic composed mainly of

light and medium vehicles. The

surface has a hot-mix asphalt

wearing course placed over a

stabilised granular base. This

segment was selected for its

to

assessing

the

surface

performance of flexible pavements

and to improving road safety

management programmes at the

national level.

2.2

Study Area

structural

homogeneity,

its

representativeness within the area’s

secondary roads, and the feasibility

of conducting tests under safe and

controlled conditions. Measurements

were taken on a dry, clean surface,

avoiding areas with potholes, recent

repairs, or surface contamination that

could affect test accuracy.

The study was conducted on a

section of flexible pavement located

on El Venado Road, part of the road

network of the canton of El Carmen,

in Manabí Province (Ecuador). This

sector lies in a humid tropical

transition zone, characterised by a

mean annual temperature of 24–27

Figure 1. Location map of the study area – El Venado Road, El Carmen, Manabí, Ecuador.

Note. The red line indicates the evaluated section of the El Venado Road.

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Analysis of macrotexture and skid resistance in flexible pavements using standardised methods.

2

.4

Equipment

and

2

.3

Selection of Sections and

Measurement Procedures

Sampling Points

Two complementary standardised

measurement methods were used to

characterise the pavement surface:

the sand patch test (ASTM E965-15)

to determine macrotexture, and the

British Pendulum Test (ASTM E303-

The selection of test points was

carried out according to criteria of

uniformity, representativeness, and

operational safety, in accordance

with the recommendations of ASTM

E965-15 for determining surface

texture and ASTM E303-22 for

measuring friction. The study section

was divided into five 50-metre

sections, with the aim of representing

variations in texture and ageing

within the pavement.

22) to measure skid resistance or

friction under wet conditions.

The sand patch test was carried out

using calibrated silica sand of

uniform gradation, with a fixed

volume of 25 ± 0.1 cm³. The sand

was poured onto the clean, dry

surface and gently spread in circular

motions until the pavement surface

In each section, five independent

measurement

points

were

established, distributed transversely

between the wheelpaths and the

carriageway centreline, with an

average longitudinal spacing of 10

metres between consecutive points.

This scheme yielded a total of 25

observations, sufficient for the

irregularities

were

filled.

The

diameter of the formed circle was

then measured, averaging four

orthogonal readings to calculate

MTD using the relationship:

4푉

푀푇퐷 =

휋퐷²

statistical

correlation

analysis

between Mean Texture Depth (MTD)

and the British Pendulum Number

where V represents the volume of

sand and D the average diameter of

the circle. This parameter, expressed

(BPN). Before each test, the surface

was cleaned and the absence of

contaminants, dust, or visible

moisture that could affect the results

was verified.

in

millimetres,

reflects

the

pavement’s capacity to evacuate

water and maintain tyre–surface

adhesion.

424

Moreno-Ponce et al. (2025)

The British Pendulum Tester (BPT)

was applied in accordance with

ASTM E303-22, using equipment

duly calibrated before each testing

day. The procedure consisted of

releasing the pendulum from a

constant height so that its rubber

slider travelled over the wetted

pavement surface. Five consecutive

readings were taken per point,

discarding the highest and lowest,

and averaging the remaining three to

obtain the BPN. This value

represents a relative friction index,

whose magnitude decreases with

2.5

Data

Processing

and

Analysis

The data obtained from the field tests

were organised in a structured digital

database, using Microsoft Excel for

initial recording and Python (NumPy,

Pandas, and Matplotlib libraries) for

statistical and graphical analysis.

Mean, maximum, minimum, and

standard deviation values were

calculated for both MTD and BPN.

Subsequently,

the

relationship

between the two parameters was

evaluated using Pearson’s linear

correlation (r), with the aim of

identifying the degree of dependence

wear

or

the

presence

of

contaminants.

between

texture

and

friction.

A standard rubber slider (IRHD 55–

0) was used, conditioned with 10

Likewise, a simple linear regression

model was applied, taking MTD as

the independent variable and BPN as

the dependent variable, in order to

obtain the predictive equation of

friction as a function of texture.

6

preliminary swings per point; the

surface was wetted at ambient

temperature (~25 °C) in accordance

with ASTM E303-22. Five readings

were taken, discarding the highest

and lowest, and averaging the

central three to obtain the BPN. Both

Goodness of fit was verified using the

coefficient of determination (R²), and

statistical validity was checked with a

significance level of α = 0.05. For the

visual representation of results,

scatter plots, trend lines, and residual

analyses were generated, which

allowed confirmation of model

tests

were

performed

under

controlled environmental conditions,

avoiding direct sun exposure or

excessive moisture, in order to

ensure measurement repeatability

and result reliability.

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Analysis of macrotexture and skid resistance in flexible pavements using standardised methods.

coherence and detection of possible

outliers.

procedure ensured the validity,

consistency, and reliability of the

experimental results, strengthening

the methodological robustness of the

study.

2.6

Validation

and

Quality

Control

Measurements were carried out

under controlled environmental

3

. Results and discussion

.1 Descriptive analysis

conditions, following ASTM E965-15

and ASTM E303-22, to ensure the

reliability of results. Tests were

performed at temperatures between

3

of

texture and friction

he descriptive analysis made it

possible to characterise the

25 °C and 30 °C and an average

relative humidity of 70%, avoiding

direct sun exposure or the presence

of surface moisture. Each point was

evaluated three times consecutively,

pavement surface behaviour based

on the measured values of Mean

Texture Depth (MTD) and British

Pendulum Number (BPN) in the five

sections of the studied stretch. n = 25

observations were analysed (5

sections × 5 points), with three

repetitions per point and averaging of

valid readings. The results show

averaging

discarding anomalous readings.

Before each testing session,

valid

values

and

calibration of the British Pendulum

and the volumetric accuracy of the

sand patch apparatus were verified,

ensuring pavement cleanliness and

uniform testing conditions.

moderate

variability

between

sections, attributed mainly to the

degree of binder ageing and to local

differences in aggregate gradation.

Table 1 summarises the mean

values and their standard deviations;

Figure 2 illustrates the joint trend

between MTD and BPN.

Quality control included metrological

traceability of measurements and

cross-comparison

between

operators to verify reproducibility.

Data were statistically reviewed

using the coefficient of variation (CV)

and outlier detection, eliminating

those that exceeded 10% variation

with respect to the mean. This

426

Moreno-Ponce et al. (2025)

Table 1. Mean values of texture and friction by test section.

Section

Mean Texture

Depth (MTD,

mm)

Standard

deviation MTD

British

Pendulum

Number (BPN)

Standard

deviation

BPN

2,4

(mm)

0,05

0,06

0,07

0,08

0,05

—

S1

S2

S3

S4

S5

0,62

0,71

0,68

0,78

61

65

63

67

60

2,1

1,9

2,3

2,0

0,59

Overall mean

0,68

63,2

—

Note. Data obtained through ASTM E965-15 (sand patch) and ASTM E303-22 (British

Pendulum). The values reflect dry surface conditions, free of contaminants and representative of

the pavement’s service state.

The results show that MTD ranges

between 0,59 mm and 0,78 mm, with

an average value of 0,68 mm, which

classifies the surface within the

medium texture range, suitable for

urban roads with mixed traffic

according to the criteria of the World

Road Association (PIARC, 2011).

Regarding friction, BPN values vary

between 60 and 67, with an overall

average of 63,2, which indicates

good skid resistance under wet

conditions, in accordance with the

classification of ASTM E303-22.

Figure 2 shows the general trend

between

both

parameters,

evidencing that sections with higher

macrotexture values also tend to

present an increase in friction. This

preliminary relationship suggests a

positive correlation between MTD

and BPN, which will be analysed in

greater detail in the following

subsection.

Figure 2. Average relationship between macrotexture (MTD) and friction (BPN)

Note. The figure illustrates the average relationship between surface macrotexture (MTD) and

skid resistance (BPN) across pavement test sections.

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Analysis of macrotexture and skid resistance in flexible pavements using standardised methods.

The observed values confirm a

homogeneous surface condition in

the analysed stretch, with no critical

sections compromising user safety.

The small differences detected

between sections are associated

with compaction level, environmental

exposure, and traffic type. These

results constitute the basis for the

correlational analysis developed in

the next subsection, aimed at

3.2

Correlation

between

macrotexture and skid resistance

The correlation analysis enabled the

statistical

relationship

to

be

established between MTD and BPN

obtained in the five sections of the

studied stretch. The results show a

positive linear correlation between

both variables, indicating that an

increase in macrotexture tends to

improve pavement surface friction.

quantifying

the

between

and pavement

degree

of

Table 2 presents the values of the

Pearson correlation coefficient (r)

and the coefficient of determination

dependence

surface

skid

texture

resistance.

(R²), obtained through simple linear

regression, taking MTD as the

independent variable and BPN as the

dependent variable.

Table 2. Results of the correlation analysis and linear fit between MTD and BPN.

Statistical parameter

Pearson correlation coefficient

Coefficient of determination

Linear regression equation

Significance level

Symbol

Obtained value

r

0,91

0,83

R²

—

α

BPN = 28,54 + 51,04·MTD

0,05

25

Sample size

n

Note. The analysis was performed with Python (NumPy, Pandas, SciPy), considering MTD as the

predictor of friction (BPN) under wet conditions.

The graphical representation of the

linear fit (Figure 3) shows the upward

trend between texture and friction

values, where sections with MTD

greater than 0,70 mm reach BPN

values above 65. This behaviour is

consistent with studies by Gao et al.

which report direct relationships

between macrotexture and anti-skid

capacity, especially in flexible

pavements exposed to tropical

climates.

(2025) and Kogbara et al. (2018),

428

Moreno-Ponce et al. (2025)

Figure 3. Scatter between Mean Texture Depth (MTD) and British Pendulum Number (BPN).

Note. A positive linear trend confirms the dependence between surface texture and skid

resistance.

The results indicate that variation in

macrotexture explains approximately

regression

model

was

fitted,

considering MTD as the independent

variable and BPN as the dependent

83% of the variability of the friction

coefficient, which demonstrates that

surface texture is a determining

factor in the anti-skid behaviour of

the pavement. The values obtained

for r and R² fall within the range

considered high correlation (r > 0,8)

according to the technical literature

variable.

The

analysis

was

performed by ordinary least squares

(OLS), obtaining the equation

represented in Equation 1.

BPN = ꢀ8,54 + 51,04 × MTD

The model indicates that, for every

0

,1 mm increase in MTD, BPN

increases by approximately 5,1 units,

which confirms direct and

(PIARC, 2011; Vicencio et al., 2022).

This evidence validates the use of

the MTD parameter as an indirect

road safety indicator, applicable in

conservation and routine monitoring

programmes for flexible pavements.

a

significant relationship between both

variables. The model coefficients

were statistically significant (p <

0,001). Slope = 51,04 (95% CI: 37,8–

3

.3 Linear regression model and

64,3); intercept = 28,54 (95% CI:

18,9–38,2). Assumption checks

showed residual normality (Shapiro–

Wilk, p > 0,05) and homoscedasticity

statistical fit

For the purpose of quantifying the

relationship between macrotexture

and surface friction, a simple linear

(Breusch–Pagan,

p

>

0,05),

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Analysis of macrotexture and skid resistance in flexible pavements using standardised methods.

consistent with Figure 4. This trend

agrees with the results reported by

Ding et al. (2021) and Gao et al.

influence of macrotexture on skid

resistance, especially in pavements

exposed to wet conditions.

(2025), who highlight the positive

Table 3. OLS model coefficients and goodness-of-fit diagnostics.

Parameter

Estimate

Standard

error

t-

statistic

p-value

95% CI

lower

95% CI

upper

38,2

Intercept

Slope (MTD)

28,54

51,04

4,70

6,61

6,07

7,72

< 0,001

18,9

37,8

64,3

Model diagnostics: R² = 0,83; Shapiro–Wilk (residuals) p > 0,05; Breusch–Pagan p > 0,05. Note.

OLS with MTD as predictor of BPN. Values consistent with Figure 4 (residuals).

The statistical analysis yielded a

coefficient of determination (R² =

linearity of the model and the stability

of variance. The coefficients were

calibrated on a single stretch with a

texture range of 0,59–0,78 mm;

extrapolation to other gradations,

traffic levels, or climates requires

local recalibration.

0,83), which implies that the

variability of BPN is 83% explained

by MTD. The residual plot (Figure 4)

shows a random distribution, without

defined patterns, which supports the

Figure 4. Residual distribution of the MTD–BPN linear regression model.

Note. Residuals show random dispersion, confirming model validity and absence of systematic

bias.

The robustness of the model makes

it a practical tool for estimating skid

pavement evaluation. However, its

validation is recommended on

stretches with different traffic

characteristics, gradations, and

resistance macrotexture

from

measurements, optimising functional

430

Moreno-Ponce et al. (2025)

binder ageing, in order to adjust the

model coefficients to broader local

contexts.

mm tend to generate loss of

adhesion, while excessive values

may increase tyre wear or the level of

perceived roughness by the user.

3.4

Technical interpretation of

the results

The prediction of friction from

macrotexture offers a practical tool

The results obtained confirm that

pavement surface macrotexture

exerts a determining influence on

skid resistance, especially under wet

conditions. The strong correlation (r

for

maintenance

management,

especially in networks where friction

measurement equipment is limited or

costly. The proposed linear model

allows anti-skid performance to be

estimated through rapid, low-cost

measurements, contributing to the

technical prioritisation of preventive

interventions. In line with the

guidelines of the American Society

for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

and the World Road Association

=

0,91; R² = 0,83) shows that

moderate increases in MTD generate

significant improvements in BPN,

which translates into a higher level of

operational safety for users. This

behaviour

is

consistent

with

international research that highlights

the importance of texture in

preventing hydroplaning and loss of

adhesion (Gao et al., 2025; Kogbara

et al., 2018; Vicencio et al., 2022).

(PIARC), these results support the

integration of texture parameters into

road safety audit systems and

functional pavement maintenance

From

macrotexture acts as a natural

surface drainage mechanism,

a

functional standpoint,

(

Ding et al., 2021; Espinoza-Molina

et al., 2021).

Taken

together,

the

findings

reducing water accumulation and

facilitating effective tyre contact.

MTD values between 0,60 mm and

reinforce the need to incorporate

surface texture assessment into

pavement

management

0,80 mm, as observed in this study,

programmes, not only as an

aesthetic or comfort parameter, but

as a risk and performance indicator.

Its periodic monitoring would allow

early detection of critical areas with

are considered optimal for flexible

pavements with medium urban

traffic, ensuring a balance between

comfort, noise, and friction (PIARC,

2011). However, textures below 0,50

431

Revista Científica ‘‘INGENIAR”: Ingeniería, Tecnología e Investigación. Vol. 8 Núm. (16) 2025. ISSN: 2737-6249

Analysis of macrotexture and skid resistance in flexible pavements using standardised methods.

loss of adhesion, improvement of

maintenance strategies, and

conditions

(PIARC,

2011).

Translating these MTD levels into

average friction values (BPN ≈ 60–

67) supports the use of macrotexture

as an indirect risk indicator in

reduction of crash rates associated

with wet pavement conditions.

Discussion

networks

where

friction

The results confirm a positive and

significant relationship between

macrotexture (MTD) and friction

instrumentation is limited, consistent

with functional assessment and

safety audit guidelines (Vicencio et

al., 2022; PIARC, 2011). In

particular, local calibration of MTD–

BPN thresholds would accelerate

(

BPN), with r = 0,91 and R² = 0,83,

which is consistent with evidence

associating moderate texture

increases with improved adhesion

under wet conditions (Gao et al.,

inspections,

focus

preventive

maintenance, and prioritise sections

with loss of adhesion due to binder

ageing or aggregate polishing (Ding

et al., 2021).

2025; Kogbara et al., 2018). The

estimated slope (51,04 BPN units per

mm of MTD) aligns with the effect

sizes reported by linear and

multiscale models that link peaks,

volumes, and effective texture

depths with anti-skid performance

At the methodological level, the

statistical consistency of the fit

(significant coefficients, normal and

homoscedastic

congruent with

residuals)

studies

is

(Ding et al., 2021; Gao et al., 2025).

that

This external coherence reinforces

the validity of the proposed model

and its applicability to flexible

incorporate standardised ASTM

protocols and section-based

sampling with replication to reduce

experimental dispersion (Kogbara et

al., 2018; Vicencio et al., 2022). The

pavements

climates.

in

humid

tropical

From a functional perspective, the

observed interval (0,59–0,78 mm of

MTD) corresponds to the medium

texture recommended for balancing

comfort, noise, and safety, as it

promotes surface drainage and

mitigates hydroplaning in wet

ASTM E965

+

ASTM E303

combination is suitable as a basis for

routine monitoring and can be scaled

with 3D profiles to capture additional

micro/macro

parameters

(peak

density, crest volume, effective

432

Moreno-Ponce et al. (2025)

texture) when greater predictive

power is required (Ding et al., 2021;

Gao et al., 2025).

of harmonised standards (PIARC,

TRRL, ASTM) will facilitate inter-

network comparability and the

definition of evidence-based policies,

in line with regional needs for

systematisation and improvement of

road safety (PIARC, 2011; Vicencio

et al., 2022).

As limitations, the model was

calibrated on a single section with a

restricted MTD range; therefore,

extrapolation to other gradations,

traffic volumes, or climates should be

accompanied by recalibration and

external verification. In addition,

4. Conclusiones

potentially

influential

variables

1

. Surface macrotexture (MTD)

(surface temperature, traffic speed,

showed a positive and significant

relationship with skid resistance

aggregate

composition,

microtexture, and contaminants)

were not explicitly modelled and

(BPN) on flexible pavements,

evidenced by r = 0,91 and R² = 0,83.

This performance confirms that

moderate increases in MTD translate

could

be

incorporated

into

multivariate

or non-linear

approaches (Ding et al., 2021; Gao

et al., 2025). Even so, the evidence

obtained shows that macrotexture is

a robust predictor of friction in the

into measurable friction

improvements under wet conditions.

2

.

The calibrated linear model

28,54 51,04·MTD)

(BPN

=

+

evaluated

context,

providing

indicates that a 0,1 mm increase in

quantitative criteria for functional

pavement management and road

safety.

MTD raises BPN by ≈5,1 units,

providing

a

predictive

and

operational tool to estimate friction

from texture measurements obtained

with ASTM E965.

Finally, it is recommended as a future

line of work to integrate the MTD–

BPN model into

a

pavement

that

3.

Statistical diagnostics

management module

(

significant coefficients, normal and

incorporates intervention thresholds,

time series, and cross-validation with

homoscedastic residuals) support

the validity of the OLS fit and its

usefulness for assessing the anti-

continuous

measurement

equipment. In parallel, the adoption

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Revista Científica ‘‘INGENIAR”: Ingeniería, Tecnología e Investigación. Vol. 8 Núm. (16) 2025. ISSN: 2737-6249

Analysis of macrotexture and skid resistance in flexible pavements using standardised methods.

skid behaviour of the pavement,

consistent with standardised ASTM

E303/E965 practices.

management system, with alert

thresholds and temporal monitoring,

and to evaluate the incorporation of

3

D parameters (peak density, crest

volume, effective texture) to enhance

multivariate models on more

heterogeneous networks.

4

.

The observed texture range

(0,59–0,78 mm) corresponds to

medium texture suitable for roads

with mixed traffic, as it promotes

surface drainage and mitigates

hydroplaning risks, reinforcing the

relevance of controlling macrotexture

as an indirect road safety indicator.

8.

As a future line of work, it is

advisable to extend the sample to

different mix types, binder ages, and

climatic conditions, compare with

continuous friction equipment, and

explore non-linear or machine-

learning models that capture

5

.

The practical applicability of

the MTD–BPN approach is high in

functional maintenance

programmes: it allows prioritising

interventions, targeting surface

interactions

among

texture,

microtexture, and environmental

conditions.

restoration, and optimising resources

when continuous friction equipment

is unavailable, while maintaining

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